RADIO

INTRODUCTION

The most powerful medium in the history of broadcasting, that has captured the essence of entertainment, education, and information in our global community from the day of its inception over a century ago to the present digital age, has been by all counts, the medium of Radio. Radio has an emotive value that moves the spirits of people and influences their livelihood in every way imaginable. It is a medium that brings ethnicity of urban and rural areas together in its quality of being intrinsic - and the ability to cover all areas of its target listeners. In its evolution, the element of Radio, which is communication, has been effective in manipulating the political agendas in the whole world by so doing charging the out view of governmental policies in different countries. From the days of the First World War to the Palestine-Lebanon war against Israel, in this present day. Radio is at the forefront of technological advancement globally and has helped in the inventions of other broadcast Mediums (i.e. Television, internet and Cinema).

The discovery of Radio catapulted humankind to another domain of intelligentsia, erasing the world of telegraphy, because of its unreliability and ineffectiveness in hash conditions. Without radio, communication was impossible between marines at seas and its command base on the land. News took time to travel to different racial populations and areas, because of the vastness of our geographical separation and the undiscovered terrain at the time, which hindered and delayed the development of humankind for over centuries. The nature of history around the world was charged, because of this new tool of communication. The power that was held solely by the leaders of the day through propaganda was transferred to the common people and created transparency in the hierarchies of society. The fundamental position of radio was and still is to educate people about the nature of their environment.

The forefathers of radio technology had no idea of what their invention would do to the world, as Joseph Conrad articulates, “We live in the flicker may it last as long as the old earth keeps rolling! But darkness was here yesterday.” (Heart of Darkness:14, 1999) So is the nature of Radio broadcast, for it has to move with the times and trends of that particular era. Radio is unpredictable, it is said to be, “The Theatre of the mind.” For it creates pictures in the mind through the element of sound and fulfils people’s needs of entertainment, education and information. To understand the centre of Radio history in our world, let us take a look at, ‘The Beginning of Radio’.

The discovery of electromagnetic waves by a German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz led to the development of radio and television, not excluding radar technology. Hertz’s research was base on the work of James Clerk Maxwell’s mathematical equations, who was a British scientist and a Professor at Cambridge University. Maxwell was interested in the fundamentals of electromagnetic waves in 1873, from the journals of Michael Faraday who first found the existence of electrical and magnetic fields. Maxwell then predicted the existence of these waves which were recorded in his journals. It was only a decade and a half later in 1887, that Hertz began testing Maxwell’s theories regarding electromagnetic radiation in his laboratory, using an apparatus called, an ‘Oscillator’ in his laboratory. Hertz’s apparatus was connected between two copper knobs that created electronically charged sparks that could pass through water and reach each other when placed at a distance from one another. The speed of the waves could travel at the speed of light at long periods of time and space, ultimately creating a connection of invisible air wires. These waves Hertz called, Hertzian waves, which were recognized as radio waves. (The Investions-: 1982; 226-229)

The whole theory of radio is base on the Hertzian waves that enabled the creation or invention of radio. This discovery sent the world to its feet and inspired a lot of scientists to try and outwit Hertz and improve on his detection of radio waves, from Lord Kelvin and Sir Oliver Lodge of British origin to Professor E. Branly of France. Professor E. Branly improve the detection in radio waves by inventing a device called the ‘Coherer’. The Coherer was to prove to be effective. It was a little tubular container of iron filings that where made by the Hertzian waves to combine and created a frugal electrical conductor. Sir Oliver Lodge used the dot and dashers of the Morse code, to create a first radio transition, therefore became the first person in history to receive a radio message, in the year, 1894, thus creating the earliest radio called ‘Wireless Telegraphy’. (Wymer: 1981; 43-46)

The tubular conductor was not that reliable, because of the inefficiency it showed in transferring signals. It was discovered that the filings became locked in their low resistance and prevented the waves from reaching its target. Professor Alexandra Popov‘s invention, of Russian descent pave the way to the improvements of the Coherer. Popov created the electrical bell that was used to shake the filings apart and, therefore it was instrumental in achieving its goal. Popov then attached a wire to the coherer and improved the reception quite extensively and that wire was the first receiving aerial. He recorded lighting using the coherer and aerial in the year, 1895, and his ideas where learnt by an Italian electrician, on how to send and receive electromagnetic signals. (De Bono: 1976; 57-58)

The development of radio was on its way in improving the lives of millions of people around the globe and making a scientific break-through in communication science and technological advancement. A young man who was interested in the experiments of science from an early age was to be the leader of radio discovery and enlighten the scientific fraternity of his discovery. (His age of discovery disputed in various books)

THE FATHER OF RADIO

A man who was to become a leader in wireless telegraphy was, Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi was half British and half Italian, son of Annie Jameson, who was encouraged by his mother to delve into the world of scientific research. Marconi spent most his life in Bologna, Italy where, he was born in the year, 1874. His discovery came after the death of, Heinrich Hertz, when Marconi was inspired to advance on the work of the late scientist. The discovery of radio came after several failed experimental trials, when Marconi, assisted by his sibling made a connection between two receivers with a hill separating the receivers and the year was, 1895. He then tried to persuade the Italian government to fund his discovery but, the government refused to help him develop his invention. (The Inventive Genius-: 1966; 46-49)

In the year, 1897, Marconi and his British relatives developed a ‘Wireless Telegraph and Signals Co.’; three years after the French government refuse to fund his initiative. The company he started was to be later called, ‘Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co.’ The Company concentrated in helping communications in civilian vessels by installing radio technology. On the 12th, December, 1901 three dots of the letter S were received by Marconi from a civilian vessel carrying about, 1,650 passengers, proving Marconi deductions about radio gliding wave theory. This ‘transatlantic radio short wave’ (HF), occurred at the bay of Newfoundland from Poldhu, Cornwall England were he deduced: “waves do not propagate in the same manner as free radiation from a classical Hertzian oscillator, but glide along the surface of the Earth.” (www.wikipedia.com). In the course of that year Marconi wrote a publication about, the “Syntonic Wireless Telegraphy”, giving his views about the topic of radio and communication. In the year, 1902, Marconi explored the possibility of commercial radio when all of his rivals were still behind in scientific discoveries. Marconi became a Noble Prize Laureate sharing the prize with Karl Ferdinand Braun. One of Marconi’s rivals Nikola Tesla was the first to predict the four tuned system that was developed by Marconi. Marconi’s work was derived from a lot of models done by different scientists. (Cavedish: 1974; 118-121)

Tesla was said to have held a number of patents in the development of radio and Marconi’s claims of having patent rights of certain designs that were similar to Tesla’s. Marconi’s reputation was dented when some of his colleges questioned the nature of his experiments and going so far as to claiming that some of his work was based under fails pretenses. Tesla took Marconi to task by conducting a lawsuit against him regarding the rights of radio discovery. Marconi was very much loved by his supporters who defended him against the onslaught of Tesla and his claims. At the turn of the century the US Patent Office made its decision and gave the patent of radio to Marconi and the other rights were solved by the U.S. Supreme Court. In the year, 1943 after the United States Army was involved in a lawsuit against Marconi’s company involving radio. The lawsuit was finally awarded to Marconi therefore, cementing his throne as the ‘Father of Radio’. (De Bono: 1976; 57-58)

THE PRETENDERS AT THE THRONE

Nikola Tesla was an inventor and an electrical engineer. He was born in the year, 1856, July 9th, in Croatia. In 1880, Tesla graduated from the University of Prague, and then moved to Budapest, Hungary to work as a Telephone engineer, because of his new AC power system that was to replace the old direct-current or DC system. Later in 1884, Tesla migrated to the United States were he met Thomas Edison and become his assistant. In 1886, Tesla lost his job due to a friction that developed between the two men. He finally was recognized as a U.S. citizen in 1889. (Compton’s, 1995, :230)

After building his own laboratory in 1893, Nikola Tesla designed a number of electrical tools and presented his designs to the Franklin Institute and the National Electrical Light Association, in Philadelphia. This was before the discovery of the vacuum tube and Tesla’s findings were later included into radio systems. An enigmatic man Nikola Tesla was, for he explored all the possibilities that were presented before him and came up with new solutions. His field of pioneering went towards magnetic receivers, choosing to not follow the functions of the coherer, ultimately making a break-through for being the first to have used the mechanism of electrical conduction.

In 1896 Marconi was certified a patent for, ‘IMPROVEMENTS IN TRANSMITTING ELETCRICAL IMPULSES AND SIGNALS AND IN APPARATUS THERE-FOR” (British patent 12039: marconi.com), in the field of radio. Marconi went on to open the first radio station in the history of the world. Tesla realised that he was treading behind in the field of discovery of radio, and then in 1900, Tesla emulated Marconi’s advancement by opening his first radio tower called the Wardnclyffe Tower that utilized to advertise services in his community. Tesla was quoted making claims that his radio tower was superior, because of its ability to: “secure multichannel transceiving of information, universal navigation, time synchronization, and a global location system.” (Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia-website)

Nikola Tesla’s inventions helped develop an alternative to Marconi’s way of doing things and formed a competitive and embarrassing theatre of discovery that was to prove to be fruitful for the development of radio for many centuries to come. Marconi’s pretenders all missed the vital parts in the development of radio, even Tesla after the lawsuit was left bankrupt and unable to carry his later inventions to life. However, Nikola Tesla achievements in the field of science are not overlooked for he was a man of many talents.(De Bono, 1976, p 56-58). Hertz initiated the spheres of radio wave that enabled the world to find a substitute to Telegraphy. Marconi advance on that discovery, so did Tesla. What was to follow in the game of radio advancement was beyond the dreams of Marconi, thanks to his foundation work in the history of radio. (Wymer: 1981; 43-46)

OTHER PLAYERS IN THE FIELD OF RADIO

After Nikola Tesla’s demonstrations of “Alternatives in Currents of High Potential and High Frequency” in 1892 of a remote controlled boat (U.S. patent 613809). It was certain that radio could be taken to another level as Tesla himself maintained that his ‘transverse electromagnetic waves’ was better than Marconi’s system of radio. Other inventors that were instrumental in the development of radio were; Georg von Arco a European pioneer, Edouard Branly with the invention of the Branly coherer in 1890, Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti who designed a tuning tube, Amos Dolbear with his earth transmission (U.S. Patent 350299), Thomas Alva Edison on “Etheric Force” in 1875 (U.S. Patent 465971, 1891), Michael Faraday, Reginald Fessenden with is “continuous” wave transmission (wikipedia.com, 2006). In the year 1840, Hans Christian Orsted found a magnetic field that was surrounded by a wire carrying current, Joseph Henry who transmitted radiant energy from a capacitor through a coil from a distance of about a hundred feet, in December 1840. Charles Herrold who advance the broadcast of radio, David E. Hughes for the experiments he conducted in transmission and reception, Jozef Murgas (1890), William Henry Preece, Augusto Righi, Harry Shoemaker(1901-1905), Adolphus Slaby a European pioneer, John Stone Stone (1901-1904) and Nathan Stubblefield with wireless telegraphy (1902). (The Inventions-: 1982; 226-229)

Jagdish Chandra Bose discovered the ‘UHF’ phenomenon in 1894; this proved that communication can be sent to anyone without the use of wires. The Daily Chronicle report on his discovery quite extensively of him, using gun powder in his experiment, beating Marconi by three years in his discovery; however Bose was not a business minded person and did not claim patents for his developments. In the year 1895, Bose went to Calcutta, India to showcase some of his experiments; however Tesla’s work was predated only by half a decade. The only work that Bose got credited for was his progress on the “iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector” which presented at the Royal Society in London, 1899 (U.S. Patent755840) and the “Detector for electrical disturbance” in 1904. Bose was an invisible man in the world of science; however his work did help in the contribution and the technological advancement of radio.

The men who transmitted his radio signal a year before Marconi was, Oliver Lodge. At the Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford University, in 1894, Lodge made improvements on Edouard Branly’s coherer by adding a device called the ‘trembler’. He was awarded a patent for the work on “Electric Telegraphy” that was able to make wireless communication signals using other inventor’s coils. Lodge sold his patent to Marconi in 1912. (De Bono: 1976; 57-58)

The invention of radio had many people who claimed to have been the first to discover radio signals. A man called Mahlon Loomis of West Virginia, in the United States was such a man, with the oldest patent dating from 1872, predating all the other discoveries. His design used for atmospheric electricity, which was similar to works of other inventors. Ernest Rutherford improved the development of radio by scientific research in 1895, with a Research Scholarship to Cambridge by detecting electromagnetic waves, thus contributing to the world of radio history. (The Inventive Genius-: 1966; 46-50)

THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO NETWORKS

The development of radio networks brought about technological advancement in the field of Warfare and improved communication networks amongst the Allied forces. Radio networks were developed after Marconi founded or produced a radio beam in 1922. The national networks controlled all the radio industry, during 1900 and 1920, however in 1926; the ‘National Broadcasting Company’ was founded. The company had two distinct ways of broadcasting communication; it had the Blue Network and the Red Network thus, enabling the network companies to produce much needed business through advertising. Other developers like, Ronald M. Foster and George C. Southworth, improved on the methods of developing field patterns. (Cavedish: 1975; 118-121)

In the year 1926, the new powering system for radio was discovered and it was called the ‘All-electric’ which changed or altered the alternating current into direct current that was useful for radio and erased the need for batteries. This development led to the formation of the United Independent Broadcasters, Inc., in 1927 and later developing the Colombian Broadcasting System. The Mutual Broadcasting Company came into existence in 1934, however in 1942, the original network companies were disbanded at the orders of the Federal Communications Commission, and the Blue Network Company became independent which, in later years changed its name to the ‘American Broadcasting Company’. (Compton’s: 1995; Volume20; 60)

In the First World War radio played a significant part during the battle of Jutland when naval ships fought against the enemy and were commanded through a radio communication system, in 1916. But earlier radio had played a major part when the Titanic was sunk in 1912, alerting other ships to be cautious on their route they were travelling in. This prompted the authorities to enforce a twenty-four hour radio watch on every ship because of the amount of people that were lost at seas during the disaster. (www.bbc.com)

In the Cold War radio was used by the Americans and their nemesis, Russia to promote propaganda in the interest of their countries respectively. This was to manipulate public opinion by ‘Radio Moscow’ and ‘The Voice of America’ in order to push their mandate and justify their actions to their nations and this was due to the amount of time spent developing radio networks. Countries were beginning to see the advantage of radio to their political aspirations by using radio for deception and distortion of the truth. This led to the laws of censorship and place boundaries in the amount of speech allowed on radio. (The World Book, 2000, Volume 15)

During the war in Europe a man called Edwin Armstrong, an engineer, advanced the functionalities of radio by creating the FM band although, it was not welcomed by network companies because of the AM band that was in existence at that time. Soldiers could listen to the developments of war in their compartments and be entertained, that was also available on aircrafts which used radio technology for navigation. (Americana, 1992, p.882)

RADIO IN AFRICA

In Africa the development of radio came about after improvements were made in the way power was distributed. The technological change to a battery powered transistor in the early 1900, gave radio a new footing in the “Dark Continent”. In 1972 the United Nations was involved in the development of radio in the whole of Africa yet, the niche of radio in these countries was very fair from being achieved, with a number of about twenty-seven countries unable to keep up with the communication systems that were in place at that time. Nigeria has a developed system of communication distribution and social listening with an average of six sets out-of a hundred which, provides a broadcast network of about seven regional services in fifteen languages.(Schirmer:1980; 54-55)

In South Africa like many other countries, most Broadcasting networks are controlled by the government of those countries; these countries include Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Tanganyika. The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) was given life on July 1st, 1924, at the Johannesburg Post Office, corner of Pritchard and Rissik Streets. This birth was not the actual rise of the SABC; however this gave South Africa a network that would later develop the radio industry in this country. Springbok radio became a prominent figure with the South African Broadcasting Corporation, which was a public utility, under the control of a board of nine governors who commercialized the services of the station, together with the national service, regulated by English and Afrikaans languages. Springbok radio generated enough revenues to keep the operation alive and the SABC maintained a wired network service to the then ‘Bantu’ towns, however with limited radio. In South Africa FM stations have been leading the pack with almost 57FM stations, with the network able to carry about 123 stations and more. The SABC broadcast about 23 radio services in 19 languages, which six are nationally beamed via Intelsat satellite. The regional services host stations such as Good Hope Radio, Highveld Stereo, Jacaranda, Radio Algoa and 5FM. Nine services from the SABC broadcast programmes to the black populous, now including the privately owned YFM. The SABC has other external services that it provides from the short-wave network with other languages such as French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Swahili, and Lozi. South Africa radio is a powerful medium with extensive coverage of news from all the national regions and international countries. It has about three-hundred news bulletins a day in a network that consists of about 30 editorials offices, 1300 correspondents, 20 foreign correspondents and 2000 news monitoring studios with representative in Washington, London and Windhoek. The SABC maintains an amount of 12 million listership that starts in South Africa and all of Africa. (Rosenthal: 1976; 1-5/ Schirmer: 1980; 55). Egypt is also a country with a highly developed network system of communication with a state owned UAR Radio that provides seven national programs of services which six are in Arabic languages. The have a niche of about 60% for entertainment, 19% for cultural affairs, 16% for news and information with 5% religion. And in Ghana most of the national networks are wired. (America: 1992; 422)

Ultimately, Africa utilizes its network system to educate, inform and entertain the populous regarding issues that affect the niche in particular areas and countries. Radio has played a vital part in broadening social and political awareness in our continent and this tool will continue to open digital spheres for our world.

RADIO AND AUDIO FORMATS

Radio uses varies ways of getting massages across the globe and that is all derived under audio which, is sound. Sound is transmitted in different modes of bands and these bands are also referred to as frequency. The first band is the AM band that is used to broadcast or send music and voices in the Medium Frequency (MF-0.300 MHz to 3 MHz) radio rays. The AM band uses “amplitude modulation” that increases the sound through the microphone to the transmitter without altering the course of the frequency. The FM band also functions the same way that the AM band does, however the speed is much more advanced and clearer than the AM band. FM (Frequency modulation) bands are louder on the microphone and create a leveled powered mode. FM is at High Frequency (VHF-30 MHz to 300MHz) rays that are meant to cover long distances between fifty and a hundred kilometers with it being the most protected mode or band. Another radio mode is, ‘Aviation Voice Radio’ or VHS AM. This band is used by aircrafts to communicate with other aircrafts and radio-control or towers which can be received hundreds of kilometres away from the airbase or airport. The VHS band uses AM so it can receive multiple channels without blocking other communicators within the stream. (Cavedish: 1975; 118-121)

The military has been using radio ever since it was introduced by Marconi to military fleets as the ‘S’ code in 1926 and during World War One. Civil and Military HF or high frequency voice services use the SW or shortwave to communicate with other military vessels and aircrafts when their out at seas or inland. They use the ‘single sideband voice’ or SSB that is lesser in width than the AM band and is referred to as the ‘Duck Quaking Band’. The Marines use AM in shortwave High Frequency band that utilizes, 3 MHz to 30 MHz in narrow bands which is used by government officials, police, fire, and commercial voice services. Then the TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio) that is a digital cell phone system used by the military, police and the ambulances to communicate and receive alerts. Commercial services also use this service in a form of digital Satellite radio.(Wymer:1981;.43-46/ www.bbc.com)

Microwave radio is used by the cell phone format to transmit and receive messages through the telephone networks. The cell phones used the FM band to transmit its band that was later changed to digital encoding. INMARSAT and Iridium are forms of satellite phones that provide world-wide reception and coverage. Navigation satellite system which where developed in 1950s, but where much used in the 1960s to locate commercial radio stations at AM bands that is also use by amateur radio stations. Aircraft navigation apply the VOR system of navigation that sends two signal at the sometime that works according to the range from the base of the signal rays. This system uses the DME or the Distance Measuring Equipment to locate its source therefore, providing a fixed position hence the name ‘fix’ that the system is referred to. The base or the stations that provide this service are known as VOR/DME stations. A system called TACAN that is incorporated into the VOR base is utilized by the military’s civil aircrafts and combined; the systems are called VORTAC communication systems. Radar is another form of audio format that uses GPS positions to detect objects under water in a form of a ‘Doppler Effect’. The EPIRB system or Emergency Position- Indicating Radio Beacons, Emergency Locating Transmitters, and Personal Locator Beacons are also use to locate position of objects in a time of need or emergency. Radio technology also includes video and television.

THE DIGITAL AGE OF RADIO

The advancement of radio into the digital format took radio into the universal age of discovery. Satellite radio, Digital Television and Digital Audio Broadcast replaced Marconi’s spark-gap telegraphy that is the oldest form of digital format that was used to send messages in Morse Code. However these types of transmitters were outlawed because of the power intake and radio frequency needed to transmit spark-gap format. Data took a turn into the future by utilizing the continuous wave telegraphy or CW (Continuous Wave) that needed a key to be switched on and off. This component applied radio frequency that used vacuum tube electronic oscillator and a receiver that created a whistle-like radio tone, in a power of One Hundred Hertz. The Continuous Wave format has not been eradicated from the networks. In the years 1925 to 1975 massages were sent by radio teletypes that operated on short-wave. The military also used this format as a speciality to create scripted information in the form of bits that were transmitted in one or two tones which formed a whole or body in groups of five or seven fragments to create a teletype message. This was also used extensively by intelligence agencies during the Second World War and is still in use for the military and weather predictors. (Compton’s, 1995, Volume 23, p.116)

Radio teletypes utilize VHF to send identity, altitude, and positioning, to communicate across the spectrum of formats in connecting flight-data. Telephone and television use quadrature amplitude modulation or QAM that sends data through changes of the phase and amplitude of the radio signals. QAM is use mostly by engineers that favour the structure of how the system packs the bits in frame format.

The systems that share their frequency with other services in order to encode digital signal into an array of a thousand sub-channels, include such a system as the COFDM OR “corrected orthodogonal frequency-divisional multiplexing’. This system makes digital decoding through a micro computer to form ‘digital signal processing’ that is easy to use and less expensive compared to older systems that where in operation during the separate electronic channels. COFDM can be sent in slow mode to prevent voice modules for fading when emitted from the source using the narrow channels of QAM signals. Other systems that use this system are Wifi, cellphones, Digital Radio Mondiale, Eureka 147 and digital television and of cause radio networks. (www.inventors.com/http/home.luna/history/Early-radio,html)

Heating also uses radio to generate microwave ovens energy else well as tractor beams which use radio waves around the electrostatic and magnetic forces. These tractor beams are use through space explorations. Radio remote control transmits control data to guide objects in the direction or course that is met to be taken. The military apply this technology to guide missiles to their targets. And as we all know our television sets use remote control radio technology too. (Wymer:1981;43-49)

RADIO AMATEURS IN S.A.

Going back in history wireless broadcasting dominated the airspace in a number of countries. In South Africa John Samuel Streeter, a Cape Town resident that was born in London, Hackney in 1884, was very instrumental in during the 1920s, in developing amateur radio. He provided entertainment broadcasting from Sea Point in Bernard House by featuring regular gramophone concerts on weekly bases and moved to Observatory to pursue this venture. Reginald Hopkins also became synonymous with amateur radio in the early 1920s; his was a man from Wynberg and used an instrument called the Pianola to reproduce musical sounds. Hopkins and Streeter worked together as partners producing and broadcast material that received a lot of publicity in newspapers, giving other youngsters a way of building their own amateur radio transmitters. They used a system called the ‘cat’s whisker’ that used a crystal detector and their popularity grew from the Western Cape to the Karoo. (Rosenthal: 1974; 8-19)

It was not long after that the Transvaal pioneers were following in the footsteps of the of the Cape amateurs developed by Arthur Sydney Innes who was well known by the name Tony Innes. Innes used wireless telephony like the other entire amateur radio enthusiasts, as a member of Corps (South African Air Force) in Johannesburg he was in charge of the Wireless Section of the military. When he left the military he started announcing by the name 2 OB, then met up with Streeter through his contacts in the Cape. Tony Innes also played a lot of gramophone records. Amateur radio led to the improvements that were made in radio. (Joyce:1989; 289)

Amateur radio communication was inspired by the father of radio himself, Guglielmo Marconi in 1901, who considered himself an amateur through his Atlantic Ocean radio signal experiment. Even Percy Maxim also a radio amateur conducted experiments in the United States. Amateur radio uses FM, single-sideband AM, digital packet radio and satellite beams. (America: 1992; 156-157)

TIMELINE

1864: James Clerk Maxwell exploit the theory of radio waves in his journals.
1888: Heinrich Hertz discovers and exhibits the theories of radio waves guided by Maxwell’s journals.
1890: Professor Edouard Branly of France invents a device that detects radio waves
1894: Marconi discovers radio by using Hertz’s theory and designs and sends the first signal.
1896: Marconi migrates to England and applied for British patent for his designs on the improvements he made.
1899: Marconi uses a new device to send signals across the English Channel and the first message ever.
1900: Marconi discovers wave length tuning by realizing that energy stored in circuits will give radio more power.
1901: Marconi discovers the Morse letter ‘S’ in his first transatlantic radio signal in Newfounland.
1906: Reginald Aubrey Fessenden makes the first public broadcast in history at a wireless station and H.H.C. Dunwoody discovers a more efficient way to detect radio waves.
1915: The first speech in the history of radio across the Atlantic between France and America using the Eiffel Tower.
1917: Marconi uses the VHF transmission for the first time.
1918: Major Edwin Armstrong discovers the superheat radio receiver.
1923: Dr. Frank Conrad applies the short wave system for long distance communication for the first time in history.
1924: Edward Victor Appleton solves the mystery of how radio travels and radio touches the shores of South Africa for the first time.
1935: Edwin Armstrong improves on the techniques of reducing static on the AM band.
1954: The first transistor was developed by an American company, Regency.
1961: America makes their first stereo broadcast, developed by a company called Zenith.
1963: AM stations lost touch in the United States but, later saved by new music from the British group the Beatles.
1970: Radio breaks new by making more money in history from the FM band and advertisers use the medium at their advantage.
1980: Satellite technology improves the number of stations available.
1980-1990: The dark years of radio broadcast around the world as the medium grows in South Africa.
1990-2000: South Africa sees the growth of radio as new radio station that carter to the youth is discovered called YFM and automation in the work environment of radio saves the integrity of radio.
2000-2006: South Africa offers more radio licenses and improves the structure of radio by breaking new grounds in radio broadcasting techniques.

CONCLUSION

The history of radio is a complex and structured development that took many years to accomplish and for it to reach its technological pinnacles all around the world. The transient nature of radio is what makes this medium unique in its totality from the days of Marconi to the world we live in today, and its simplicity, is what makes it the world’s number one medium. Radio transmits waves of information, education and entertainment in our chaotic, loud society with complex personalities, and has no boundary of niche or target in any structure of our nation. People can choose to listen to any radio broadcast that suites their taste or lifestyle in the South Africa microcosm. And create their own theatres of perception through sound and voice. Radio enriches lives and protects those who are blinded in this world through discussions that concentrate on the psychographics and environmental change. Radio is life, as Anthony Ackerman of S.A FM says: “Radio is the only medium, apart from television that can showcase soap operas through sound.” (Interview on SABC NEWS) The future of radio in this country is limitless and will go beyond the current presentation that radio offers today. (Manual, 2006, Boston Media House)

Radio captures the essence of what we really are and forms people’s behavior overtime and space. It creates villains and heroes in the airwaves break and mend hearts of mutual relations, radio is life. So, switch on my brother!

Compiled by Linda Sakazi Thwala

LIST OF REFERENCES

•ANDERSON, M.C. & CONRAD, J, 1999.Heart of Darkness, University of South Africa: Pretoria.
•ANONYMOUS, 1995. Compton’s Encyclopedia, Volume 10, Tribune Publishing Company, USA: Chicago
•ANONYMOUS, 1995.Compton’s Encyclopedia, Volume 14, Tribune Publishing Company, USA: Chicago
•ANONYMOUS, 1995.Compton’s Encyclopedia, Volume 23, Tribune Publishing Company, USA: Chicago
•ANONYMOUS, 1995. Compton’s Encyclopedia, Volume 20, Tribune Publishing Company, USA: Chicago
•ANONYMOUS, 2006. RADIO STUDY MANAUL, Boston Media House, South Africa: Sandton
•ANONYMOUS, 1982. The Inventions that changed the world- an illustration guide to man’s practical genius through the ages
•ANONYMOUS, 1966. The Invention Genius Foundations of Science- Inventions Foundation of Science Library Technology, London Press.
•CAVENDISH, M, 1975. The illustrated Encyclopedia of Technology, British Press: London.
•ANONYMOUS, 2000. The World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 15, Oxford Press.
•DE BONO, E, 1976. Eureka, An illustrated History of Inventions from the Wheel to the Computer: London.
•HOLLAWAY, M, 2001. Love, Power and Meaning, Oxford University Press, Cape Town: South Africa.
•JOYCE, P, 1989. Encyclopaedia, London Press.
•ROSENTHAL, E, 1974. You Have Been Listening, Oxford Press: London
•www. bbc.co.uk(Thomson radio)
•www. google.cu.uk (How radio helps society- Google search)
•www. wikipedia.com (Website)
•WYMER, N, 1981, Inventors, British Press: London.

CORRUPTION– Africa’s Disease

Corruption has reached its peak in South Africa and the people can’t take it anymore. Corruption is not new to us, but its pace is now alarming. This year the ministers splashed on cars, houses and other untold gadgets. Whilst the country was heavily hit by recession, corruption inflated. It is no wonder that people in Mpumalanga have become violent – enough is enough.

The government, whilst campaigning, promised to turn South Africa into a paradise, where people would work together, jobs created, water and electricity in every corner, smooth roads, good services – the list is endless. Although citizens acknowledge and appreciate government’s effort to ‘create a better society for all’, we would like to see corruption in all spheres of the economy being curbed urgently, in order to preserve the future of this beautiful country.

We have seen enough flames, rubber bullets attempting to silence fuming citizens – whilst corruption, the cause of this chaos is on the rise. Mpumalanga residents openly displayed their rage towards their municipality, and this led to many of municipal leaders being fired. I would like to congratulate the government on this and I hope it is just the beginning of rooting out corruption and corrupt individuals. I look forward to seeing many corrupt officials being fired, even though this means there will be very few, if any left.

On the violence side – everyone seems to blame the residents for violence, not considering the fact that they might have exhausted all options. Violence is wrong, but at the present moment, it seems to be solving problems faster. The Mpumalanga officials are now fired but in some parts of the country, where corruption is also rife nothing has happened as yet.

The people of the South know that sometimes violence is the solution to some problems. Apartheid was not removed by dignified talks, there were fires, bullets and blood, and corruption might also be removed by the same scourge.

By Babalwa Sibango

FIND YOUR DESTINY

One of life’s most unanswered questions, is the question of destiny. What is destiny? Is it the things we acquire in our journey of life, the love we seek and sometimes find, or is it the way we carry ourselves, our being. Is it our sensual attitudes towards our environment and the social interactions which offer us with solitude at times, laughter, happiness, and sorrow. Is it the roads we travel? Whatever we think or do destiny is a place that each individual is destined to reach.

Destiny is an innate entity that needs to be nurtured by our loved ones, meaning your parents and close relatives, if not by ourselves. Destiny is a promise from the heavens, it is an endorsement made by ourselves in a divine order, in love and in light. It resurrects with growth as soon as a toddler reaches puberty, influenced by the social imprints experienced day-in and day-out through peer-pressure in addition to paradigms of social immoralities and the struggles well fought to reach a lucid base in life. These influences form or pave the way to your destiny. I always maintain that, our destiny is assured however, it all depends on our choices. As in Robert Frost’s poem, ‘The road not taken’, where the speaker says

“I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.”

Your destiny is assured but, your choices are not. In life everyone has two choices; to be or not be, live or die, inhale or exhale, work or be idle, win or lose. Your choices determine the culminations of your journey in life, that being your destiny. Everyone was given the right to choose and that chose is interlinked with your personal data base. In life there are two sides namely; wrong and right and so an individual must make a decision that will affect their journey in life. It is all enveloped in knowing yourself and the energies that surround you, in which the are many possibilities in the divine order to how your life turns out. And that has to be determined by you and only you.

The other day I was watching Oprah, on SABC 3 and she was interviewing the author of, ‘A Million Little Pieces’, James Fry, a book based on the author’s personal experiences and realities about drug addiction. As the author related his story, I was mesmerized by his accounts of having started using at a very tender age of ten. First drinking alcohol and then moving on to heavier staff at thirteen, from there on he was involved in ‘dealing’, attending college in an apogee of white powder. Having overdosed twice previously. Then decided that enough is enough and took another road in his life, which is to rehabilitate himself and be a positive beckon in the lives of other addicts by writing about his endeavors in the state of mental absenteeism and a form of escapism from his reality. And that was the birth of the best selling novel, ‘A Million Little Pieces’.

This is a true depiction of destiny. Clearly the author was meant to write this book one way or another and help bring people to the realities of addiction, be it drugs or alcohol. The universe had paved a pathway for him to do this, that being his destiny, however the universe also left the author a choice, for him to realize his personal strength in acquiring the power within himself and taking that necessary step towards his destiny by choosing the other ‘road not taken’, offered to him in the eternal universe. He could have chosen to be idle and gave up on life, died a lonely spasmodic death of drugs and alcohol but, choose to get clean, get married, have children, and two dogs, which he happily walks before sitting next to his computer and writing yet another best-seller, (The dogs not the children).

Which reminds me about the interview that Miss O, had with the cast of the movie Crash; a motion-picture that paints a bleak image on interrelations between people of color and their white counterparts. In life just as in the movie, prejudice is a choice and if a person chooses to be hateful to another person, because of the color of their skin, their destiny will be an unfulfilled life of hate, resentment and labeling. Which ultimately will lead them to being seen as racist and that is not a wise choice in life. Humanity will be better served if people learned to be less bias or racist to their fellow man and help reach an abundantly loving destiny for our nation.

I sometimes have greeting glances of the sun at dawn and cheerful goodbyes at dusk, and think of the million possibilities in the world that are there for a single individual however, cannot be acquired all at once, but can be reached all in good time. Time also has two sides, just like choice, your have the ‘past’ and the ‘to’, day and night, yesterday and tomorrow. We all flow in the essence of time, and need to be patient. A person must choose to be patient through the walk of life. I have friends who are in jail today because of their choices and impatience. They use to talk of a nice materialistic life style and fast cars, and having sexual related games with women they hardly knew. I saw no problem in that but, what disturbed me is the way that my friends took to acquire this wealth, that is by stealing or hijacking. I know that if you are from the township and you live with a single parent, some things are hard to come by when you want them to. Even education can be a far-fetched realization for you, as you are surrounded by abject poverty and negativity. However I do not condone violence as a vehicle for penury emancipation. Unfortunately some of my friends found if necessary to follow such a lifestyle and choose to live a life of a rabbit , always in the hurry from the police, like the rabbit Dorothy chased in, ‘The Wizard of Oz’. My friends chose this destiny of a ‘jail-bird’ and I choose a life of wisdom filled with poetry writing, (And reciting), and that has made a difference for me, and hopefully, someday the world. My destiny being to fly with ambition of self and resurrect the leader to be, a voice of hope to all and bring light into the world, like the sun at dawn, I will endure the day, my mind never sleeping until I reach my glorified dusk, my destiny.

In a relationship two people who are in love must not have fairytale perceptions of love. They must understand that loving another person is based on choice and understanding, therefore the destiny being a fruitful relationship, marriage, and sometimes children. Yes there are other factors to consider like, emotions such as caring, compassion, and attraction but, if someone chooses to ignore these feelings nothing can ever blossom or ignited into a romantic experience. This includes abuse between two individuals be it verbal or physical. When a person decides or chooses to be abusive they draw themselves a mapped destiny of emotional and physical scars that will be hard to mend

We must remember that the choices we make determine our attitude which will determine our latitude that will equal to our destiny. Destiny is about living life the way you where meant to live it and engaging all the obstacles you come across, in a positive light and to do that, you need to be wise in your choices. As I always tell my friends that: “Wise-ways come from wise-thinking which result into wise experiences enriching your soul equaling to wisdom.” ( And that was not a quote from anyone famous ). In good choices lays a destiny far more greater than your own expectations and your dreams. Be patient, be wise, and make excellent choices and watch as your destiny unfolds.

WORD TO A NEW REVOLUTION!

By Linda Sakazi Thwala

INSIDE THE PAPER FOR THE PEOPLE - THE SUNDAY TIMES

In the dictionary the term, journalism is defined as: “the work of collecting and writing news stories for newspapers, magazines, radio, or television”. However in recent years the terms of what journalism is about and entails has evolved beyond the structures that form the bases of acquiring the story and reporting the story. Graham Greer, in his book; ‘a new introduction to JOURNALISM’, states: “Journalism is the profession or practice of reporting, about, photographing, or editing news stories for one of the mass media. [i.e. Internet, newspapers, radio, magazines, and television]” .The are a lot of facets to be considered before the requirements of a deadline are met and the final publication is distributed. To delve into these facets that make up one of the largest mediums in the canon of mass media, print media, I take a look inside, “THE PAPER FOR THE PEOPLE”, The Sunday Times.

The Sunday Times is one of, if not, thee largest paper in Southern Africa. It was first established in the year, 1906 and has evolved over the years to being the biggest national paper in the Southern hemisphere, including countries such as, Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland.The Sunday Times is a weekly publication that consists of six publications that form one paper, including a magazine. The first editorials feature current affairs which include national and international political news, world news, and social news, entertainment and gossip columns. These editorials have the cover story and the title of the magazine, results for one of South Africa’s favorite pastime, the Lotto and a list of what is to follow inside. The second editorials are titled, ‘Insight & Opinion’, which carries personal accounts or narratives of prominent people and events on the first page, (reported by special reporters). Then obituaries and critical columns that feature politicians, doctors and the scholarly elite of South Africa’s academic society, it has opinions and views from the public and the editor’s viewpoint article, and my personal favourite, ‘Mampara of the Week’, that is followed by Sports News both national and international. The third editorials are titled, ‘Metro’, which feature all News reports around the city of Johannesburg and Gauteng, adverts of social events, (Drama, Theatre, Music ext.) under the title, ‘Entertainment’ with photographic reporting of social gatherings. The page titled, ‘Good Morning’, leaves a tingle in your taste buds, with a savvy on the best cuisine in and around Jo’burg’s finest restaurants where all the restaurants are critically rated on their customer service and food expertise. The back page features an interview with South Africa’s who’s who, from mass media to sporting activities. The fourth editorials are, ‘Lifestyle’, which covers the best holiday destinations both abroad and locally. It has a special report, in-depth article from any form of entertainment, be it fashion, films, new trends or music. It gives more attention to publications, biographies, and autobiographies, book fares, writers and the arts. Inside the publication you also get international news and current affairs, in the form of: ‘The New York Times’. Last but not least you get the ‘Business Times’, which feature corporate reports, careers, money ( JSE, Investments, Stock ext.) and articles for upcoming businesses called, ‘It’s My Business’. And also not forgetting the ‘Magazine’ with columns from one of South Africa’s best reviewer and columnist critic in the film industry, Barry Ronge and also provides the nation with a weekly TV guide. (www.sundaytime.co.za)

This year, the Sunday Times celebrated its centenary with an overwhelming number of about, 504 657, average sales per week and an estimated, 3.24-million readership. Cementing its long standing as Avusa Media's (previously Johnnic Publishing's) proudest offspring and rising luminary in the print media world. Over the past hundred years the Sunday Times has bare witness to humanitarian reports, political turmoil, assassinations of prominent leaders, World Wars, racism, natural disasters, revolutions, antisemitism, murders, rapes, sports, fashion, music, euthanasia, terrorism, tribalism, voyeurism and the outbreak of HIV/Aids. (www.sundaytimes.co.za)

The Sunday Times, as a witness to South Africa’s microcosms has managed to flourish under the previous regime of the apartheid government rulers, who jerked the shackles with an iron fist of the National Party through censorship. It survived propaganda, segregation, massacres and the unfair treatment of the natives of the land, when white supremacy reigned and miscegenation ideals were a blasphemous notion in the tongues of the tyrannical administration. Those who wished for freedom and democracy were imputed of terrorism, communism, (Marxist idealism) and sabotage and were sent away to Robben Island or other correctional, ‘dungeons’, renowned for their interrogation tactics, (i.e. Sun City prison). (www.sundaytimes.co.za)

The photographic archives of the Sunday Times, is the home of the best artistic photo journalism the world has ever seen. As a wise man once said: “A PICTURE SPEAKS A THOUSAND WORDS”, from the epoch of its birth the paper depicted a strong sense of fairness and diplomatic reporting to foreign countries, with a splendour of journalist dignity, proximity, timeliness, prominence, novelty, conflict, human interest, topicality, eyewitness and sex, ( ‘Elements of news value’: a new introduction to JOURNALISM, p.19). The photographic images, together with textual articles played a formidable part in defining the ethical value of the Sunday Times and have since catapulted the paper to its well known slogan, “THE PAPER FOR THE PEOPLE”.

The Sunday Times employs close to three thousand journalists, both locally and internationally, with a largest percentage of journalists, ranging from, Beat reporters, General Assignment reporters, and Special Assignment reporters to Correspondents, either freelancing or full-timely employed. Its news or articles are in-depth and gives more time to information than any other news paper does, (In South Africa) although most of its revenues are contributed by the advertising in their news paper, with adverts from corporate companies, N.G.O (Non-governmental Organizations), Government Departments, retailers to small business. The paper also dances to the strings of the populous at a reasonable price, with the administration and circulation side of the paper handled by Johnnic Publishing and the production done at, The News Paper Printing Company, in Johannesburg. It has foreign and national bureaus with editorials from London, Cape Town, Durban and Port Elizabeth, undefeated with a distribution network spanning beyond the borders of South Africa.

In my journalistic prowess, I spoke to ‘Buti’ who has been working for the Sunday Times in the past ten years, although being a feminist at heart, ‘Buti’ confirmed to be as astute as they come. I asked ‘Buti’, what he thought was the integral part of being a journalist? He said: “The most important thing you have to lookout for is being opinionated by your own ideals and indoctrinations of how you perceive the world. A journalist must never be bias and prejudice towards the people that provides the story. You must remember that objectivity breaths wisdom and subjectivity breaths ignorance.” I then asked if he thought sensationalism was good or bad for the news paper. ‘Buti’ answered thus: “You must remember that the print media industry is a business at the end of the day and it has to feed its employees, to do so it has to create some form of hype in the way it illustrates its articles. I guess there has to be a creative drive in providing the story through proper channels and not fabrications.” Are you proud of being a journalist? I sensed a sigh, then: “I am proud of my achievements, from where I was to where I am today. Yes.”. I wanted to ask if his earnings or salary is what keeps him motivated, however knowing what journalism entails and the amount of time required for one to prove themselves worthy of being editor of any kind, I decided, to let sleeping dogs lay. (‘Buti’ source at the newspaper)

The Sunday Time is managed by the most prolific people in the print media industry, which also includes the journalistic ability that the news paper represents. It plays host to a diverse selection of journalistic artistry, from crime reporting to economical news. With the outmost integrity descended upon the world of print media. The structure of this news paper is governed by the strongest ethical duties of being, “Independent, Current, Accurate, Fair, Honest and Critical, Responsible and Objective.” (a new introduction to JOUNALISM). Freedom of the press truly governs the hierarchy of the Sunday Times. Open the pages of the ‘Lifestyle’ publication that has the most appetizing editorials of holiday destinations and human interest stories from the callow peripheries of the African Safari to the mountainous regions of Europe, cultural demonstrations and fabulous cuisine. The publication explores new trends and lifestyle of the bourgeoisie. ‘Lifestyle’ has its own editor: Laurice Taitz; assistant editor: Lerato Tshabalala; sub-editors: Garth van der Walt and Sue Plein; writers: Bongani Madondo, Caspar Greeff, and Lin Sampson. The book review pages are by Michele Magwood and cars expect page done by David Bullard. The news editor of the Sunday Times is Jessica Bezeidehout; sub-editor Berry Smith and chief sub-editor Simpiwe Philiso.

The last time I visited a news room of any news paper, I was in my early teens and I was taken abreast the walls of earthly concrete heaven with serenading sounds of keys tapping into the unknown earth, the unexplored. In my perceived thoughts that bare all the appearances of Joseph Conrad’s, ‘Heart of Darkness’, when the character Marlow reminisces about his boyhood, dreaming of adventures in the ‘Dark Continent’, and articulates: “At that time the were many blank spaces on the earth, …..But the was one yet – the biggest, the most blank, so to speak - that I had a hankering after.”. The news room that unleashed my emotive spirit into subliminal thoughts and anointed my head with an ink of poised creativity, to flow into the constant river of prose poetic streams, was none other than, Fred Khumalo’s alma mater, ‘THE SOWETAN’. Where Fred Khumalo polished his journalistic skills under a pseudonym then rose to be one of the best journalists in the Sunday Times. Their news room to my perception was like, the coming and goings of humanity, pieces of paper, silent conversations, shouts and deadlines, it captured my core. It was my first experience inside a news room and that has resided in my memories to this day.

The loveliest day of the week, is on a Sunday morning, when society rest peacefully in their soft beds and the songs of angels and birds are heard in the distant trees and worship houses, vehicles maneuvering, in the streets with House-music busting in the eardrums of men, to delete the memories of regretful deeds from the previous night of horror and booze. The breeze strikes my face, a man shouts in the distance: “Your paper, Sir!” I walk towards the gate and there, she sleeps her bold words scarlet like a Rose with thorns of black ink tears, ‘THE SUNDAY TIMES’. I pick her up in merriment and into my house, I herald her. Then, into the pages of her short knowledgeable life my eyes are lost in scrutiny, inside ‘The Paper for the People’.

By Linda Sakazi Thwala

(Please note that, the aforementioned names of journalists and editors may have changed since this article was written in the year 2006)

THE MISSING PIECE OF THE PUZZLE-WHY AFRICA REMAINS UNDERDEVELOPED

When African countries became independent, political leaders were faced with two main challenges. The first was consolidating their political power and achieve domestic stability and peace. The second was transforming their countries economies from their colonial design as suppliers of raw material produced through the exploitation of indigenous population.

Today this dream seem impossible, Africa story is far more complex. Old conflicts continue to erupt creating dashed dream to the people. Example include the genocide in Rwanda, civil wars in Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Liberia, Gabon, Uganda, DRC, Cote d’ivoure and Zimbabwe to name the few. These conflicts caused untold suffering and destruction to already underdeveloped infrastructure. What went wrong to this continent -shaped like a question mark? Well let me dissect my thesis.

Historically colonisation was not design to develop the human capital of indigenous people. The driving motive was to extract the continent mineral and agricultural raw materials to be shipped to the mother country for processing into manufactured goods. With this only in mind, colonisers required from the colonised a steady supply of unskilled labour.

Independency did not bring economic transformation in Africa as it did in Asia. It entrenched the economic inequalities inherited from colonialism. The new black elites merely replaced the former white colonial elites, and the exploitation of blacks still continues as before, as did the exploitation of Africa ‘s mineral resources-the copper, gold, bauxite, iron ore, cobalt, oil, timber, cotton, coffee, cocoa beans-drawn from the continent and exported to the rest of the world.

It is this drive to retain control over the continent resources that goes some way to explaining the interest of these black elites not to help the dire African population. Allow me to take you to Equatorial Guinea. This country was never well governed from the start. Mr Obiang Nguema, the president seized power by executing his uncle in 1979. The oil has made his regime paranoid. Several members of the ruling family are thought to want a bigger slurp at the oil barrel.

Mr Obiang sees plot everywhere and arrange periodic crackdown. Several opposition leaders were jailed last year after a mass trial, to which many of the defendants turned up with broken arms and legs. Mr Obiang scoffs at notions of transparency, insisting that how much money his government earns from the oil is nobody business. Oil has turned me crazy lamented Mr Bacele a brave opposition politician.

Next door in Gabon, Omar Bongo has been in power since 1967. Unlike Mr Obiang Nguema he does not torture his enemies but buy them off. Decades of oil revenues have corrupted Gabonese work ethic. Citizens aspire to non-paying jobs like taxi driving or shop keeping, others leave the country to the poorest countries such as Mali and Togo. Infrastructure development in these countries is nothing ,but the death end.

Zimbabwe represents a textbook story of how a successful country turns into trash. Today, this country pride itself with fossils of pre-industrial, pre-agrarian formation that are unable to deliver any economic sense. The stunted subsistence economic systems established by colonialist and perpetuated since their departure have left Zimbabwe unable to absorb new technologies and new management methods. Thanks to greediness between Mugabe and his close allies. Zimbabwe has become notorious-declining life expectancy, capital flight, brain drain, deforestation and growing dependency on foreign food donated by other counties.

A few kilometres away of Lusaka lies a town Kafue. Once upon a time, Kafue was a hive of economic activites. It had textile, fertiliser, chemical plants and railway line that serve these industries, but today Kafue is a ghost town. Once again thanks to poor management from the country political elites who see power as a vehicle to move to the oasis and left the dire population in poverty. Zambia is not the only country with nothing to show for its post-independency but also Nigeria. The alumium smelter and oil in Niger delta leave much to be desired. Corruption linked with kidnapping have left majority very poor while political elites emerged with lump sum from kick bags from western countries.

Kenya provides a graphic illustration of the assassination to destroy leaders who questioned the neo-colonial agenda from these black elites. Within the few years of independency several progressive Kenyans –Tom Mboya, Pio Pinto, J M Kariuki and Robert Ouko, to name but a few died in mysterious circumstances. Therefore, Africa underdevelopment crisis can then be described as a slow and frustrated emergence of an independent black middle class from the mid 1960 to the present. This class has not only fought for independency but also control of Africa mineral resource and re-colonise its own people.

I wrote this article out love for Africa therefore, I should speak the truth unopposed. Politics in Africa has failed the people dismally. It has failed to develop new institution of cooperation among its citizen and to produce the type of leaders required to take society forward in this ever changing global environment. For the continent to develop we need leaders that energies the citizen to achieve a common objective. In order for citizen to do so, however two key elements must be present- institutions that facilitate cooperation and leaders who ensure that these institutions function and deliver on expectations. Among other things are incentives of fairness, social justice, equity and significant investment on human capital. The millennium development goal will forever be dream in a pipeline unless, Africa start uprooting the evils of neo-colonial and fill the missing piece of the puzzle

God bless Africa.


By Cyprian Thwala

MARITAL BLISS OR BLAST?

Marriage is truly a hard and complicated union to get into – When you get into it, you have to drive a really hard compromising and winning arrangement. Others seize to exist and lose all contact with their friends and family. Others get into marriage for the wrong reasons, thus end up burning the other end of the stick, by committing adultery. In other situations people are forced to marry whether they like it or not. Notwithstanding, couples that cordially agree to get into the bonds of marriage to honour their love together, ‘in sickness and in health, till death do them apart’ and actually be true to their genuine life long commitment.

If you are a sucker for companionship you are bound to burn a few fingers and plunge yourself into an insensitive despair - Especially, when your bonds are with a wrong person, either in marriage or in any other relationships. On the other hand, if you value your life, you do know that; it is neither safe nor wise to go into any courtships without questioning the intentions or true feelings of another unless, that particular individual has you engrossed around their little finger and you are drooling and drumming to the beat of their music. Consequently, lose your reality and principles on life.

In one occasion, I met this lovely charismatic young lady, who related (to me) the problems she encounters in her relationship with her husband - how she goes out of her way to try and gratify his manly pleasures and yet, he is not willing or prepared to nurture her needs. She confessed to having anticipated his behavioral patterns, way before they started contemplating marital bliss but, was blinded by the eyes of her heart and encouraging comments by her friends, who thought (according to her) he was well endowed in bed - thus will be an excellent provider and shelter or balance her emotional imbalances .Others thought, they’ll be well suited into a harmonized relationship, in holy matrimony and that they are a match made-in-heaven for each other.

Regrettably for her, the truth about their relationship started settling-in when the honeymoon stages ended for him, and he started seeing, how imperfect a woman she is. That’s when he started on using her affection for him to his advantage - even though she was religiously loyal to him.

She told of ghastly, disappointing accounts, when she would arrive home early to surprise him, after a long business trip, in their own apartment and heard sounds and groans of sexual gratification of him and another unsuspecting young lady, coming from their own bedroom, in her own bed. Now, being a good woman she is - she would leave the place and come back later when the deeds of infidelity have been done. Afraid of any confrontation that will drive him away; which will end-up for her losing the one person she truly loves. She would resolve pretending nothing happened.

Not only that but; whenever they have a chance to go out together, he would leave her to oversee the bill for their expensive outing. He doesn’t show any respect to her opinions and lends no support to their (childless) family obligations. At times, her husband is so secluded to their financial hardships, to the extent that he steals from her purse. I asked her; why not kick the brother to the curb? She dreamily replied: “When he touches me, I just, melt.”

Besides the former incident - my sister always complains constantly, about her husband cheating on her with young high schoolgirls - the type that speak and handle themselves like older mature women, when they are actually little insecure girls inside and in appearance. The type of schoolgirl that is seeking for a good time, from sugar-daddies, forgetting the pain they inflict to their sugar-daddy’s spouse. The marriage-wrecker type of little girl, that doesn’t realize that she still has a life ahead, beyond what my brother-in-law or any other sugar-daddy can provide for her. Fortunately my brother –in-law is the type of man that acknowledges his wrong deeds – hence he took necessary steps to mend the broken bridges, between him and his wife.

I confess to haven’t experienced the bliss or blast of marital life but, according to what my friends and some elderly couples whom I closely associate with – some of which, have been married for decades. This is what I know:

Some relationships or marriages are driven to the point of destruction, due to infidelity, high expectations and communication breakdown. In some, this destructive pattern comes in a form of abuse that could be: substance abuse (i.e. Alcohol), emotional abuse, physical abuse or verbal abuse. This is what I innately know, and have incessantly communicated about maltreatment.

Maltreatment towards women, whether emotionally, verbally or physically has been an outdated behavioral pattern exposed in some, if not all relationships – that is created by the unfortunate notion which maintains that, a man is a proverbial ‘head of the family’. Other men inflict judgment upon their women and find it, their god-given right to handle their women indecently; therefore creating a perception that portrays all men to be within the boundaries of cowardice conduct when relating to their spouse. This creates a dilemma, where the women have to face the challenges of day to day decision making for the livelihood of their children thus, deterring the traditional notion of gender superiority in relationships.

Gender plays a pivotal role in our society especially, in identifying and suppressing the weaker sex. In democratic countries educated women have disproved the gender issue, by taking over the role of bread-winner in so doing, enraging the chauvinistic ideals of men who have it in their preconceived thoughts that women are the weaker inferior sex. Globally, assumptions as these, about women and their femininity have dampened the struggle of women’s emancipation and ultimately their image. Leading to an impression that analyzes women as sex objects and baby-makers, in contrast to their male counter parts, who are seen as macho and capable of handling laborious tasks. And can womanize and abuse as many women as they wish, without being labeled or branded a ‘harlot’. The irony is that throughout history masculine dominance has been supported by a timid nature of tribalism minds of women, who allowed this indoctrination to take-over their god given right, of not only as care-giver but, also as leader, which in this modern world, is a formidable part of motherhood.

Essentially the effects brought about by gender segregation in our nations; filter through to our relationships, formulating bias and prejudice connotations against females. The questioning roles of which, have been taken far too seriously by males, who conclude that being provider equally places them on the pedestal as decision-maker therefore, enables them to encompass the hopes and interests of the children and, the spouse in their decisions, even though those decisions are self-indulgent.

Eventually creating stereotypes in relationships, where women who rebel are trapped in a pool of physical, verbal and emotional abuse – hence, affecting the equilibrium of the relationship and hindering the development of each individual whether in a physique or spiritual form. It is vital to remember that, a marriage situation is in essence a place of growth for both man and woman. In a realistic relationship scenario, respect and trust should take precedence to any flaws that your partner has or lacks and in-turn try to accentuate the good qualities or values that each spouse contributes to the union.

Matrimony whether it is holy or not, was not meant for dominance of one sex to another, rather a joint struggle to reach the superior values of life and give each spouse a direction to faith as well as, loving procreation.

In Love and Light Peeps!

WORD TO A NEW MARITAL REVOLUTION

THE EYE THAT BEHOLDS

It is mind and heart blowing, what the heart can behold when it comes to the feelings of affection. The topic of love is a truly complicated emotional, spiritual and physical conundrum we all seek to experience and grasp. Love is an elusive, yet comforting thing to have. It is said to bear all things and endure all things - love is blind and it sleeps in the eyes of the beholder. It sometimes comes with a great price and an equally great pain, that no intellectual or scientist, in their earthly selves, can ever decipher.

A question was recently posed by our, South African eloquent luminary poet, Lebogang Mashile; via the popular social chat network, Facebook: “Why are all the really hot guys unavailable [or girls]? I’m (Are we) living in a crazy vortex, or is this reality? Do guys experience the same with women?”

This question was met with some intellectual evoking observations by some of Mashile’s friends on the site. Here’s what some had to say:

Precious Mabusela: “What is hot? What if all the so called ‘hot men’ are taken? Are you gonna be single till kingdom come? You know what, my man is definitely not a Mr. S.A. candidate, but his actions are more than ‘hot’ for me. Ke mo rata a le jwalo (I love him the way he is), hot or not.”

Manthatisi Machepha: “Most Eligible Bachelors” are cohabiting for decades with their women, have a string of ex-girlfriends with their kids; yet they always declare I am single and looking for a relationship! They will never invite you to their houses, they will always be busy, and they will want to marry you tomorrow, 3 months down the line the topic of marriage will vanish and later on, they are hardly if ever available on phone….etc! I think men today live a number of lives, and its so appealing to them to have the baby-mama there, steady concubine, steady partner (cohabiting with)…etc, but still single and hot.”

Denzel Edgar: “Really hot guys don’t solve our relationship problems…Relationships are tyranny not love. It is two empty people trying [to] fill their emptiness with each other cause they do not how to fill themselves. So we create an image of the person we are in a relationship with so that they can give us all the Q’s and expectations are not met the image is compromised so we suffer and find somebody else. We do not date human beings we date protected images in our heads of these people, i.e. our images are the things in the relationship, not the people. So there can’t possibly be an understanding of love in the current human relationship format, cause we’re all a bunch of ideas of self we have made reality. This applies to us all (men and women) cause we all exist in each others realities.”

Earl Joseph: “Sadly, it’s always about demand and supply. And unfortunately the high demand for the good guy often turns him into bad guy. Ego is the corrupter, which results in an even smaller pool of good guys. The converse is that the bad guy, while dealing in consistent miser attracts the good girl who, through the process of natural selection, chooses him as a project to convert to the good side. Sadly this process does not increase the pool of good guys but just pushes up the ratio of unsatisfied women to unattractive good guys higher than it should be. In truth there are no good guys or good girls - only greener pastures. And we all know that the grass is always greener on the other side…”

Manthatisi Macheba: Quote: “Things are meant to be used and people must be loved, in today’s world people are used, things are loved.”

In a nutshell - In today’s society, love is mixed with materialism filled with such conniving immorality and deception, which makes it a rare precious thing to find. Materialistic love comes with lust and unfortunately doesn’t last. Take time to know the one you spiritually, mentally and physically bond with. Take care of the eye that beholds and make that truthful lasting love connection.

In Love and Light Seekers!

WORD TO A NEW LOVE REVOLUTION…

THE DILEMMA IN THE BONES

The gift of insight is an appealingly fascinating, depressing, and unpredictable thing to have. It is what Macbeth, one of Shakespeare's characters, indirectly pointed out as a tale; “Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.” Well, it really does mean nothing when the visions are not shared and people are seeking for what is beyond this world.

It means nothing unless someone is goggling at you with eyes pleading for glorified mercy, as though you are of the messianic order – to castaway all the evil and wrongdoers in their lives. There are numerous disturbing things about this gift; that I have never uttered to a single soul since the Creator bestowed such an honorary conceding persona to this vessel called I – conceding: because if you do not yield and humble yourself to the Creator and allow the visions to come through – you are as good as a raving lunatic seeking for a ghost from an unknown tomb.

The first dilemma that makes one move into the boundaries of dementia is the inability to communicate the things that the Creator is kindly revealing to you – in a form of dreams, premonitions, omens and the other that will remain untold. The inability to unbridling the enigma that leads to this confusion and dementia.

Dementia is not the only ultimate setback, no not in the least bit. The other significant problematic bit about this gift of insight is the lingering stigma of witchcraft that people always associate you with – they maybe your neighbours, your day to day acquaintances and religious folks, who imagine you spend your timely gifted days conjuring evil and mixing concoctions to bewitch others. A shameful misconception about the gift of insight that has led to a number of people crucified, for what is beyond their comprehension.

On the contrary, this dishonourable crucifixion of people with insight can be blamed on the ungodly acts that truly diabolical individuals engage in. These acts have been reported on daily in our media – about individuals who believe that they are God. Traditionalist, who use animal flesh and fat to brew up potions for luck and prosperity, - at times going to the extent of murdering people, just to acquire human flesh and bones to realize their inhuman psychosis. Consequently - keeping the flames of stigma burning and wreaking havoc on those with insight for good intentions. (Thank goodness the archaic tradition of crucifying people with fire in public has since been quelled)

This leads to my other point: The archaic gift of insight was revered and respected, before the pretenders to this honorary throne started creeping up from every valley, village and vistas of this world. Duping people about what they foresee just to pocket a few pennies to their pockets - which, led to people thinking that this gift is a get-rich-quick-scheme and is there to sustain your livelihood for good measure, another misconception. It can, but it was not meant for that. There’s a Zulu proverb that says: “Imali iyiphande yesono.” Loosely translated means: “Money is the root of all evil.”

What wearies my spirit is when a spouse enquires about a potion to keep the fires of a marriage burning. Therefore, requires one to give the other spouse the potion orally, for them to see and agree to their own point of view. What lunacy! Herbs like Pills were meant to heal or remedy the sick, not change the persona of the other spouse or partner in a relationship. What happened to a loving amicable communication channel in a relationship!

The worst part about this gift is when you counsel a patron that is obsessed about knowing the future. Now, this is when I regularly and constantly warn my patrons about: “Do not get OBSESSED”. Obsession is a deadly pill to digest, which does not only obliterate your mind, but can reach to the intangible confines of your soul, thus lead to ultimate dementia. (i.e. believing that your seeing things when you actually are not, thinking that things will go amiss if you don’t come for a spiritual consultation, or the inability to make your own decisions)

This gift is associated with dementia, mainly due to the spirit communing through you, which is why there’s this thing called ‘THE CALLING’. The calling is a spiritual tale filled with drums and songs - which to someone standing from the outside looking in truly is a demented tale, “Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury; Signifying nothing.”

In Love and Light Folks

WORD TO A NEW SPIRITUAL REVOLUTION

SNOOKERING THE GAME CALLED LOVE

PLAYER: What life is with Snooker 

Confessions are in order – When it comes to the game of love, I’m a bit rusted not to mention frazzled. This uncompromising oxidation was brought about by endless heart-breaks from infatuations that I thought were love in my high schooling years and a long term relationship that amounted to naught. In all expects of metaphysical existence regarding love in affection either on its physical parts or its emotive side – thus my long-term attachment ended in mistrust and emotionally unfortunate detachment. My emotional misfortune - for I realized then, that I was at that period of time to many steps shy of being a PLAYER.

The latter (emotional misfortune), left my mind and soul lingering in a sea of uncertainty, to what love really is. I thought I knew it all – of cause Boyz II Men, T.P. (Teddy Pendegrous), Marvin Gaye (or is it Gay), the Manhattans, R. Kelly and Michael Jackson (Yeah! Michael Jackson), to some extent, taught me about ‘snookering the game of love’ – after all there was no father figure to tell me about these things - girls and all. One fine holy Sunday morning my mother just threw a glance at me from a corner of her eye, whilst Pabi Moloi delivered her summon on Metro (or was it Kabzela on YFM) and sighed; only to throw me with a box full of condoms hours later, on a Monday morning, a royal blue one nogal. She warned: “Dare not get pregnant at your age under my roof!”. What confusion! Pregnant! Did I miss something at birth? Maybe she’s on Ritalin or something, PSYCHO!. So, I took the learn-as-you-go-route, no not pay-as-you-go, I had a box full of expendable condoms. World, here I come! (Oops, excuse the pun). Bump n’ Grind baby!

Unfortunately the box in action was thrown away exactly a year and two months, five minutes and two seconds after the clock registered the thirteenth hour. With only one condom used (in practice, mind you), expired - what a waste, environmental waste. The box came at the time when I was unschooled in the matters of playing the game – What amazed me though is that, everyone called me a player: “What’s happen’ Player!”… “Howdy’ do Player!”… “Man, you look like a Player!”… “Man, you’s a Player!” - Well I was a player… Soccer player, Cricket player…Basketball player...and I could run the 100 meters mark in precisely 13.73 seconds, but who cared about that.

Love was in the air and the ladies all looked good in my eyes, but I was still lacking in taking the trophy for ‘Playerdom’. Whatever cretinous game that was! This was way before the AIDS/H.I.V pandemic started ravaging our society, before being a player was a safe game to play. Gone are those days.

These days, ‘snookering the game of love’ is more dangerous than going to church. In the apartheid days one could be boomed to pieces in church before the Pastor could shout: “Peace!”, gees Desmond Tutu was lucky. Ag, no wonder ladies tell me about Jesus when I propose a date, these days. “In church you shall be safe from all sexual exploits including H.I.V/AIDS!”

I guess it’s true what they say: “It takes a fool to learn that love don’t love nobody.” Except Jesus, amen to that!

So, I learned to snook the game of love….

Play Safe Kids!

WORD TO A NEW REVOLUTION!

Sexual economy in South Africa, what it means to me

Blessed are those who see light in darkness, they shall be called angels of this word. More than ever before, our country deeply yearns spiritual guidance towards legalization of prostitution. The great enigma that lingers within my mind is the lack of godlessness in some of the policies we have adopted in our premature democracy. It is this country that has legalized abortion, but yet again condemn death penalty.

At times and in fear I often wonder about the price we might have to pay if sexual economy is declared to be in order. Think about operation between men and women on a continuum of benefits ranging from basic needs, provision of luxury goods in exchange for sexual favours. What picture will be painted to the born free who are entrusted to make valid choice?

Think about the vulnerability of people to HIV /AIDS. Poverty and hunger is still the order of the day in South Africa. I foresee the situation where trading with human flesh will dominate any profession in this country. Will our country be proud to collect tariff of tax in this illegal trade of human contact, South Africa, where is your moral fibre?

Think about the growing number of Aids orphans, estimated at more than a million in 2006. Once again, I foresee another means to weaken the already strained social fabric as children become heads of impoverished households. Children growing up without parental guidance are emotionally at risk. Many drop out at school and become vulnerable to exploitation that may further fuel the pandemic.

Dear brothers and sister’s quite diplomacy on this may prove in a long run to be incompatible. Let’s liberate our psyches from western myth. The fact that Germany legalised prostitution does not mean we should do the same for 2010. We are civil-society blessed with morals and Ubuntu. Let’s renegade any effort that may leave us with stains that may prove to be difficult to wash. Those who want to impose on us shall belong to the dustbin of history.

By Cyprian Thwala

EXPECTATIONS THAT SPELL – ABUSE

Growing up as a child one remembers the painful sounds of panic that emanated from my father and mother’s bedroom. They were the sounds of a dying flame, extinguished and strangled by society’s expectations of what a relationship should be between a married couple. Screaming expectations that drive all men and women to committee the sin of adultery - even though their actions were not forged to hurt anyone, they ended up traveling in these but all familiar spousal roads with dark cul-de-sacs.

These expectations that lead to abuse commence with infatuation, leading to a road flamed with endless passionate nights that are tranquil with smiles of joy and hallucinations of a trouble free life. Followed by vows of promise that procreates, thus bring more expectations and insurmountable hills of responsibilities, which render more trouble to a relationship that was in tatters and had no time to learn its ways; “time” being the operative word - a relationship that was forged by sex not truly loving mutual ways.

Too many relationships in society start off by skipping a number of steps that make a relationship to what it should be. Steps, which are vital in moulding two personalities with two separate minds, two separate hearts; into a single harmonies vessel of two hearts in one mind with caring, sharing, and understanding. Flowing unaltered, unfaltered by the troubling, broiling storms that rise and surge with marriage.

Troubling screeching screams that emanated from that bedroom, were followed by a tag-of-war, of who-knows-what, only be known by their harsh shifting footsteps, then slaps and punches that all landed straight on the fragile façade of my mother’s face, (evident the next morning) – all, but one calculated punch. One punch that killed the elegant dark brown antique glass of my then, belated paternal grandmother’s bedroom door along with little love my parents shared. After many punches that landed plainly on their target, denouncing the legitimacy of their quickly forged relationship. Abuse, physical to be exact, is what took place in that bedroom, after a long brawl of verbal and emotional abuse.

In the morning, my infantile eyes would patrol the quiet kitchen and living-room space from an ajar bedroom door - after tiptoeing from a fearful late night strained sleep. In my childish sleepy eyes, the evidence would show its self – abuse; evident in my mother’s face.

Expectations that lead to such horrendous spousal cul-de-sacs are witnessed everywhere in today’s society. Recently, our South African television screens were splashed with a news inset of a police officer that got into a squabble with a man that was with his wife in a car, that the police officer bought with his money for his wife – only to find out his wife is having an affair with another man. The altercation ended in tragedy when the police officer pullout his gun and shot his wife, her boyfriend and then himself, right in front of his colleague. Now, what you need to ask yourself is - why was she having an affair after he bought her a car? We’ll never know.

A friend of mine was also recently milled in a bad relationship with his wife of two and half years, who has borne him a young healthy boy (the wife). Counseling both of them; followed a period of a lengthy emotional struggle between the two – both withstanding their own views to be the ultimate correct view. It dawned on me that these guys were two similar poles that repelled each other. How do two people get into such a character minifying position in their marriage? Well this is what happened, as my friend succinctly explained - They met at a social gathering, had sex, moved in together, paid Lobola (which is equal to a married in tradition), started fighting, had a baby and had more intense aggressive fights (signs of abuse); now he wants out and she doesn’t want to let go. It all transpired too quickly, by the time they found out who the other was, it was over.

In more counseling sessions with my friend, after a mutually agreed upon separation between the two - he reluctantly admitted at upholding certain expectations towards his wife and vise-versa - expectations that were never met from either side.

Love at times harbors abusers and abusers at times render love as a weapon to perpetuate their abusive ways. It is said that love is blind - therefore the abused may think that being made a punching bag, is a form of love or being loved. Of cause, this love comes with certain enmities concealed by couples who move in together after a brief period of getting acquainted, that are camouflaged by materialism. As opposed to couples who build their lives from nothing into wealth, then part amicably when their lives come to a cross-road. (Not buying gangsters to kill your spouse and set then alight in a boot of a car somewhere in the wilderness)

Kneeling down in that corridor, aged five, listening to my father and mother’s arguments that ultimately led to their divorce – a certain truth dawned upon my tiny emotionally dingy body. There was no love left between my parents, as there is still no-love-loss between them to this day. Why? As I frequently articulate to both my parents when they verbally scorn each other behind each other’s backs – “You should have taken time to know each other.”

Getting to know your partner is an essential role as to what your own role is in your relationship or marriage. Each partner embodies certain qualities that complement what the other partner may lack in character or emotion. When complementing personalities merge, a symmetry of emotional security, (minus financial security) is forged with mutual respect, thus creating a long-lasting stable relationship that builds both partners emotionally, mentally and financially. At times a personality merges with a personality that may prove in a long run to be incompatible mainly due to some emotional imbalance, which leads to abuse, adultery, or an emotional detachment from either partner. Materialism is not a form of love; it is a condition that may dissipate at any given moment if not properly secured.

A Wiseman once articulated: “We are captives of our own identities, living in prisons of our own creation.” Let’s free ourselves from our own personally created prisons and merge our identities with those of our partners – subsequently finding common ground that is filled with inner peace and mutual love, consequently eliminating abuse in any form.

Love Free!

WORD TO A NEW REVOLUTION